The Evolving Landscape of Global Climate Governance: Outcomes of COP29 and Implications for India

By Singhda Devi

Edited by - Nazmin Saikia

1. Introduction

The annual Conference of the Parties (COP) serves as the paramount forum for international climate negotiations under the UNFCCC, aiming to advance global efforts to combat climate change. COP29, held in Baku, Azerbaijan, from November 11-22, 2024, was particularly anticipated for its focus on climate finance, building upon the outcomes of the first Global Stocktake (GST) at COP28. This article provides a comprehensive overview of the principal outcomes of COP29 and subsequently analyzes their multifaceted implications for India, a nation at the confluence of significant developmental aspirations and profound climate vulnerabilities.The analysis highlights both the opportunities presented by global climate frameworks, such as enhanced financial flows and market mechanisms, and the enduring challenges India faces in balancing its developmental imperatives with ambitious climate action, emphasizing the persistent need for equitable responsibility and enhanced international support.

2. Key Outcomes of COP29 (Baku, November 2024)

COP29 delivered several crucial decisions, though not without contention, reflecting the complex interplay of national interests and global climate imperatives.

2.1. New Collective Quantified Goal (NCQG) on Climate Finance: A central mandate of COP29 was to establish a new post-2025 climate finance goal, superseding the previous target of $100 billion per year. After protracted negotiations, parties agreed to a new target for developed countries to lead the mobilization of at least $300 billion per year by 2035 for climate action in developing countries. While a significant increase from the previous goal, this figure fell short of the $1.3 trillion per year by 2035 that many developing nations, including the G77+China group, had advocated for, as indicated in the "Baku-Belém Roadmap to 1.3T" process launched at COP29 (UNFCCC, 2024a; ECCO Climate, 2025). The agreement also emphasized the need for all actors to contribute to scaling up finance from diverse public and private sources.

2.2. Operationalization of Article 6 Carbon Markets: A notable breakthrough at COP29 was the finalization of the remaining operational elements of Article 6.4 of the Paris Agreement, which pertains to international carbon markets. This agreement provides clearer rules for the accounting and trading of carbon credits, potentially unlocking new avenues for climate finance and cost-effective emissions reductions (Woodwell Climate, 2025). The operationalization of this mechanism, contingent on robust environmental integrity and transparency, holds the promise of accelerating global decarbonization efforts.

2.3. Global Goal on Adaptation (GGA): Progress was made on the Global Goal on Adaptation, with parties providing further instructions for technical experts to develop indicators and metrics to measure progress towards global resilience (UNFCCC, 2024a). This builds on the UAE Framework for Global Climate Resilience adopted at COP28 and seeks to strengthen the global effort on adaptation, which remains significantly underfunded compared to mitigation.

2.4. Loss and Damage Fund: Following its establishment at COP28, COP29 confirmed the operationalization of the Loss and Damage Fund, allowing it to begin disbursing funds in 2025 (C2ES, 2025). This marks a critical step in addressing the unavoidable and irreversible impacts of climate change in vulnerable developing countries.

2.5. Other Outcomes: COP29 also saw the extension of the Lima Work Programme on Gender for another ten years, the renewal of the Marrakech Partnership for Global Climate Action until 2030, and further progress on transparency reporting under the Enhanced Transparency Framework (ETF) (UNFCCC, 2024a; Carbon Brief, 2024). However, discussions on strengthening mitigation ambition beyond existing NDCs and concretizing the "transitioning away from fossil fuels" pledge from COP28 saw limited advancement, largely deferred to future COPs.

3. Relevance for India

India, characterized by a rapidly growing economy and a large, climate-vulnerable population, stands at a critical juncture in its climate action trajectory. The outcomes of COP29, and the broader global climate governance landscape, bear significant implications for the nation.

3.1. Opportunities:

Enhanced Climate Finance Flows: The NCQG, despite falling short of aspirational figures, signals a commitment to increased financial support for developing countries. India requires substantial capital, estimated at approximately USD 2.5 trillion by 2030 to meet its Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) and over USD 10 trillion by 2070 for its net-zero target (TERI, 2025; CPI, 2025). The prospect of increased public and private finance, coupled with the operational Loss and Damage Fund, presents a vital opportunity for India to bridge its significant climate finance gap and invest in renewable energy, energy efficiency, and climate-resilient infrastructure. India's draft climate taxonomy, released in May 2025, further aims to channel greater domestic and foreign investment into green technologies and activities (Green Central Banking, 2025).

Carbon Market Participation (Article 6): The finalized rules for Article 6.4 create a clearer framework for India to engage in international carbon markets. This could attract foreign investment, facilitate technology transfer for decarbonization projects, and provide an additional revenue stream to support its climate initiatives, particularly in sectors like renewable energy and sustainable agriculture (Woodwell Climate, 2025; IndiaAI, 2025).

Reinforcement of Renewable Energy Trajectory: India's ambitious renewable energy targets, aiming for 50% of cumulative electric power capacity from non-fossil fuels by 2030 and 500 GW of non-fossil fuel capacity, align strongly with the global emphasis on accelerated energy transition (TERI, 2025). The international climate framework provides a supportive environment for India to continue its rapid expansion of renewable energy, which reached 203.18 GW of installed capacity by October 2024 (TERI, 2025).

Climate Diplomacy and Leadership: India's growing role in global climate diplomacy, highlighted by its proposal to host COP33 in 2028, is strengthened by its active engagement in multilateral processes. The outcomes of COPs provide a platform for India to advocate for its national interests, particularly on equity, climate justice, and finance.

3.2. Challenges:

Mitigation vs. Development Nexus: India consistently champions the principle of Common But Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities (CBDR-RC), arguing that its per capita emissions remain significantly lower than developed nations. Balancing the escalating global pressure for more ambitious mitigation targets with its imperative for economic growth, poverty alleviation, and energy security remains a fundamental challenge. The lack of stronger global commitments on fossil fuel phase-out at COP29 underscores the ongoing tension between historical responsibility and future development pathways (Carbon Brief, 2024).

Climate Finance Adequacy and Accessibility: Despite the NCQG, the disparity between the agreed financial commitments and India's actual needs remains substantial. India requires not only scale but also predictable, concessional, and grant-based finance to effectively implement its NDCs and adaptation strategies (CPI, 2025). Navigating complex bureaucratic processes to access international climate funds continues to be a hurdle.

Just Transition for Coal-Dependent Regions: Coal continues to dominate India's energy mix, accounting for approximately 70% of electricity generation (Eurasia Review, 2025). A rapid transition away from fossil fuels, while necessary for global climate goals, necessitates robust "just transition" plans to support the millions of livelihoods dependent on the coal sector. This requires significant investment in reskilling, economic diversification, and social safety nets, a challenge that requires sustained international cooperation and domestic policy frameworks (Eurasia Review, 2025).

Vulnerability to Climate Impacts: India is disproportionately affected by climate change, facing increasing frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, water scarcity, and threats to agricultural productivity. Over 80% of India's population lives in areas vulnerable to climate-induced disasters (Green Central Banking, 2025). While the GGA aims to strengthen adaptation, the scale of adaptation finance and implementation remains critically insufficient to meet India's escalating needs.

Anticipation for COP30 (Brazil, 2025): The road to COP30 in Belém, Brazil (November 2025), will likely see continued discussions on ramping up mitigation ambition, particularly as countries prepare to submit new or updated NDCs by February 2025. India will need to navigate these discussions, ensuring its climate actions are recognized within a framework of equity and adequate support (UNFCCC, 2025b).

4. Conclusion

COP29 marked an important step in global climate governance, particularly through the establishment of a new climate finance goal and the operationalization of carbon market mechanisms. For India, these outcomes present significant opportunities for accessing much-needed finance and leveraging market-based approaches to accelerate its decarbonization and adaptation efforts. However, the conference also underscored the persistent challenges related to the adequacy of climate finance, the need for a just transition away from fossil fuels, and the enduring tension between historical responsibility and developmental imperatives. As India continues its journey towards a low-carbon and climate-resilient future, the effectiveness of global climate frameworks will heavily depend on their ability to deliver equitable support, foster genuine international cooperation, and respond to the unique circumstances of developing nations like India. The outcomes of COP29 set the stage for crucial discussions at COP30, where the global community must translate commitments into tangible action to secure a sustainable future.

References:

Carbon Brief. (2024, November 24). COP29: Key outcomes agreed at the UN climate talks in Baku. Retrieved from https://www.carbonbrief.org/cop29-key-outcomes-agreed-at-the-un-climate-talks-in-baku/

C2ES. (2025). Key Negotiations & Related Outcomes of the UN Climate Change Conference in Baku. Center for Climate and Energy Solutions. Retrieved from https://www.c2es.org/document/key-negotiations-related-outcomes-of-the-un-climate-change-conference-in-baku/

CPI. (2025, March 7). Transforming India's Climate Finance through Sector-Specific Financial Institutions Part 2. Climate Policy Initiative. Retrieved from https://www.climatepolicyinitiative.org/transforming-indias-climate-finance-through-sector-specific-financial-institutions-2/

ECCO Climate. (2025, January 10). What happened at COP29: the results of the Baku Conference of the Parties. Retrieved from https://eccoclimate.org/what-happened-at-cop29-the-results-of-the-baku-conference-of-the-parties/

Eurasia Review. (2025, June 25). Just Transition, Climate Change, And India: A Mid-2025 Perspective. Retrieved from https://www.eurasiareview.com/25062025-just-transition-climate-change-and-india-a-mid-2025-perspective/

Green Central Banking. (2025, May 16). India publishes draft climate taxonomy to encourage green investment. Retrieved from https://greencentralbanking.com/2025/05/16/india-draft-green-taxonomy-to-encourage-investment/

IndiaAI. (2025, January 3). AI and climate action in India: A strategic perspective in 2025. Retrieved from https://indiaai.gov.in/article/ai-and-climate-action-in-india-a-strategic-perspective-in-2025/

TERI. (2025, March 5). WSDS 2025 Thematic Tracks - Climate Finance: Accelerating India's Decarbonisation Journey. Retrieved from https://www.teriin.org/event/wsds-2025-thematic-tracks-climate-finance-accelerating-indias-decarbonisation-journey

UNFCCC. (2024a, November 24). COP29 UN Climate Conference Agrees to Triple Finance to Developing Countries, Protecting Lives and Livelihoods. Retrieved from https://unfccc.int/news/cop29-un-climate-conference-agrees-to-triple-finance-to-developing-countries-protecting-lives-and

UNFCCC. (2025b). The road to Belém. Retrieved from https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/conferences/un-climate-change-conference-belem-november-2025/the-road-to-belem

Woodwell Climate. (2025, January 9). Key COP29 outcomes. Retrieved from https://www.woodwellclimate.org/key-cop29-outcomes/

The Survival of Human Inhabitants Is at Risk: Is This Climate Injustice?

By Anthony Das

Edited by - Nazmin Saikia

Coastal West Bengal is a multi-hazard zone, vulnerable to climate extremes. In 2020, Super Cyclonic Storm Amphan devastated the coastal districts of South and North 24 Parganas. At the heart of this region lies the Sundarbans—an ecological hotspot rich in biodiversity and natural resources, where livelihoods depend heavily on fishing and foraging in mangrove forests.

However, despite its abundance, the Sundarbans is extremely fragile and unsuitable for sustained human habitation. The ecosystem is being pushed to the brink by poverty, overpopulation, and a lack of environmental awareness and sustainable livelihoods. These pressures intensify the effects of climate change and make both the ecosystem and its people increasingly vulnerable.

On May 20, 2020, Cyclone Amphan made landfall in West Bengal around 2:30 PM IST. Though it weakened from a super cyclone to an extremely severe cyclonic storm, it was the fiercest in 100 years. With storm surges up to 5 meters, vast areas were inundated with saline water, cutting off communication lines and damaging infrastructure. The National Disaster Response Force and state agencies evacuated around five lakh people. The storm destroyed homes, crops, electric poles, and transportation networks.

Just as communities began to rebuild, Cyclone Yaas struck in May 2021, undoing much of the recovery efforts. It was a brutal reminder of how climate injustice manifests—not just in rising temperatures or melting glaciers, but in the repeated destruction of poor, vulnerable lives.

One such story is that of Chandana Mondal and her son Raja, who try to hold on to what little remains of their home. Their village on Rupamari Island, surrounded by the Goureswar and Dasha rivers, is now frequently overrun by tidal surges. In the face of repeated cyclones, rising sea levels, and land erosion, even newly constructed mud and bamboo embankments have failed to hold back the water.

“The sea often rises above the barriers during high tide and floods our homes,” Chandana says, pointing to where the river used to be before Cyclone Aila in 2007. “After Amphan in 2020, a new embankment was built, but it still can’t stop the water.”

The Sundarbans comprises 102 islands, nearly half of which are inhabited—for now. The constant encroachment of the sea has forced many to live in temporary shelters. Chandana and her family, like many others, live in tarpaulin tents on slightly higher ground, unable to afford land elsewhere.

“We have no money to buy new land. We’re poor people,” she says. “No paddy cultivation for two major seasons. We’re surviving on government rations.”

Even worse than natural disasters, she adds, is the politicization of embankment construction. “We thought COVID-19 was bad,” she sighs, “but the corruption around these embankments is worse.”

Chandana’s story echoes those of countless others living on the frontlines of climate change in the Sundarbans. Here, humans and wildlife—particularly the Royal Bengal Tiger—are being squeezed into shrinking spaces, leading to deadly consequences. And as the sea advances year after year, the very survival of these communities hangs in the balance.

SDGs and Climate Conditions in India: A Call to Action

By- Alphina Chathan Jimmy & John Pallan
Edited by - Namzin Saikia

India's Climate Crisis: A Threat to Sustainable Development

India, a vast and diverse nation, is particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. Shifting weather patterns have led to hotter summers, erratic monsoons, and unpredictable winters. These changes are disrupting agriculture, water availability, and natural ecosystems. Rising temperatures are upsetting the delicate balance of India’s biodiversity and threatening the livelihoods of millions who rely on natural resources.

The consequences are visible across the country. Melting Himalayan glaciers are altering river flows, affecting freshwater supply for millions. Coastal regions face increased flooding and erosion due to rising sea levels, displacing communities and damaging infrastructure. The growing frequency of extreme weather events—such as cyclones, floods, and heatwaves—continues to cause widespread loss of life and property.

The Role of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) provide a global framework to tackle pressing challenges and ensure a better future. In the context of climate action, three SDGs are especially critical:

• SDG 7: Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all (focus on renewable energy like solar and wind).

• SDG 13: Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts.

• SDG 15: Protect, restore, and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, manage forests sustainably, and halt biodiversity loss.

These goals are deeply interconnected. For instance, expanding access to clean energy (SDG 7) reduces emissions that contribute to climate change (SDG 13), while conserving biodiversity (SDG 15) strengthens ecological resilience.

Small Steps, Big Impact

Individuals can contribute meaningfully to climate goals by adopting simple yet powerful practices:

• Plant trees and conserve water: Trees absorb carbon dioxide, mitigate heat, and support biodiversity. Water conservation helps secure this vital resource for future generations.

• Reduce energy consumption: Turning off lights and fans when not in use, using energy-efficient appliances, and switching to renewable energy can reduce one's carbon footprint.

• Reduce, reuse, and recycle: These habits reduce landfill waste and conserve resources, contributing to cleaner air, soil, and water.

India’s Progress on SDGs

According to the NITI Aayog SDG Index, some Indian states have shown promising progress:

• Kerala: Tops the index with a score of 79, driven by excellence in healthcare and education.

• Uttarakhand: Also scores 79, making strides in renewable energy and sustainable tourism.

• Tamil Nadu: With 78 points, it demonstrates strong performance in industrial growth and infrastructure development.

However, several states still lag behind. Bihar ranks lowest with 57 points, followed by Nagaland and Jharkhand, which face challenges in healthcare, education, and basic infrastructure.

Climate Change and the Economy

Climate change poses serious risks to India's economy:

• Agriculture: Irregular rainfall and temperature changes disrupt crop cycles, lowering yields and increasing food inflation.

• Industry: Rising energy costs, supply chain disruptions, and climate regulations raise operational expenses.

• Services: Heatwaves and extreme weather impact tourism, travel, and urban productivity.

Heatwaves and Urban Vulnerability

Heatwaves are becoming more frequent and severe, threatening public health, economic productivity, and urban livability. Delhi, India's capital, is particularly vulnerable, with projections indicating a sharp rise in average summer temperatures by 2050. This could reduce labor output, increase health risks, and further strain urban resources.

The Way Forward

While India faces formidable challenges, coordinated efforts by individuals, governments, and civil society can steer the nation toward a sustainable future. Policy reforms, green innovations, and grassroots action must go hand-in-hand.

Recommendations

• Invest in renewable energy: Scale up solar, wind, and other clean energy solutions to reduce dependency on fossil fuels.

• Promote sustainable agriculture: Encourage climate-resilient farming techniques to safeguard food security and rural livelihoods.

• Enhance climate resilience: Invest in adaptive infrastructure, early warning systems, and community-based climate planning.

Conclusion

Climate change is a major hurdle in India's path toward sustainable development. Yet, through collective responsibility, bold policy decisions, and individual lifestyle changes, progress is achievable. The Sustainable Development Goals offer not just a roadmap, but a shared vision for a greener, fairer, and more resilient India.

References

1. India's Path to Climate Resilience and Sustainability: Challenges, Policies, and Opportunities – CDPP

2. NITI Aayog SDG Index – Government of India

3. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) – United Nations

4. India's National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)

5. Climate Change Performance Index 2023

RURAL SUSTAINABILITY AND CLIMATE GOALS

By Arpita Priyadarshini Mishra

Edited by - Nazmin Saikia

“The future of our rural communities depends on our ability to live in harmony with the land that sustains us.”

Introduction

Rural sustainability and climate goals are central to achieving sustainable development, particularly in a country like India, where rural communities form the backbone of the economy. As climate change becomes increasingly evident, the need to integrate sustainability into rural development becomes urgent and unavoidable.

Rural Sustainability

Rural sustainability refers to creating thriving, resilient rural communities that are economically productive, socially inclusive, and environmentally sound—today and for future generations.

Rural areas depend heavily on:

• Agriculture

• Natural resources

• Traditional livelihoods

These dependencies make them particularly vulnerable to:

• Resource overuse

• Climate change

• Economic disruptions

Key Elements of Rural Sustainability:

• Eco-friendly farming practices

• Renewable energy solutions

• Waste management systems

• Soil and water conservation

• Improved education, healthcare, and infrastructure

• Community participation and empowerment

The goal is to reduce migration to cities, preserve rural cultures, and promote self-reliant, climate-resilient villages.

Climate Goals

“We are the first generation to feel the effects of climate change, and the last that can do something about it.” – Barack Obama

Climate goals are measurable targets set by governments, regions, or organizations to combat climate change. These goals include:

• Reducing greenhouse gas emissions

• Transitioning to renewable energy

• Adapting to unavoidable climate impacts

For example, the Paris Agreement (2015) seeks to:

• Keep global temperature rise well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels

• Pursue efforts to limit the increase to 1.5°C

Many countries now aim for Net Zero Emissions by mid-century—balancing emitted greenhouse gases with those removed from the atmosphere.

Achieving these goals requires:

• International cooperation

• Technological innovation

• Financial investment

• Community and governmental participation

Sustainable Development

“Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” – Brundtland Commission Report, 1987

Sustainable development integrates:

• Economic growth

• Social inclusion

• Environmental protection

India and 192 UN member states have committed to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)—17 global goals including:

• No Poverty

• Clean Water and Sanitation

• Gender Equality

• Affordable and Clean Energy

• Responsible Consumption

• Climate Action

The essence of sustainable development is to uplift all communities while conserving ecosystems and preventing irreversible damage to the Earth.

Climate Change

“Climate change is not waiting for us to act—it’s reminding us every day why we must.”

Climate change refers to long-term shifts in temperature and weather patterns, largely driven by human activities like:

• Burning fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas)

• Deforestation

• Unsustainable land use

These activities increase greenhouse gases (CO₂, methane, nitrous oxide), which trap heat and lead to:

• Melting glaciers

• Rising sea levels

• Frequent floods, droughts, and heatwaves

• Agricultural disruption and biodiversity loss

Solutions involve two key strategies:

1. Mitigation: Reducing emissions, increasing carbon sinks

2. Adaptation: Adjusting systems to minimize damage

Rural Sustainability and Climate Goals: Pillars of India’s Development

For a country where nearly 65% of the population resides in rural areas, climate goals and rural sustainability are not optional—they are foundational for India’s inclusive and resilient growth.

Why Rural Sustainability Matters

Rural areas:

• Employ over 40% of India’s workforce

• Ensure food security

• Protect biodiversity and traditional knowledge

Key Challenges:

1. Soil degradation

2. Groundwater depletion

3. Unsustainable farming

4. Poor waste management

5. Climate-sensitive livelihoods

Without addressing rural vulnerabilities, India's development remains incomplete.

Climate Change: A Clear and Present Danger

Although India is the third-largest emitter of greenhouse gases, it is among the most climate-vulnerable countries. Rural India faces:

• Erratic rainfall and extreme weather

• Crop failure and livestock loss

• Resource-driven displacement and migration

• Decline of farming, fishing, and forestry

How Rural Sustainability and Climate Goals Connect

1. Sustainable Agriculture

   • Organic farming

   • Crop diversification

   • Agroforestry

   • Soil health restoration

2. Water Conservation

   • Rainwater harvesting

   • Watershed management

   • Sustainable irrigation techniques

3. Clean Energy Access

   • Solar pumps

   • Biogas units

   • Rural mini-grids and decentralized power

4. Climate-Resilient Infrastructure

   • All-weather roads

   • Flood- and heat-resistant housing

   • Cold chains for perishable crops

5. Community Awareness & Participation

   • Local governance

   • Farmer education

   • Climate literacy among youth

Key Indian Initiatives

• National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)

  • Focus on missions for solar energy, agriculture, and water conservation

• PM-KUSUM

  • Promotes solar-powered irrigation for farmers

• MGNREGA

  • Supports climate-adaptive activities like afforestation and watershed projects

• PMKSY (Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana)

  • Enhances irrigation efficiency

• India’s International Pledges

  • Net Zero Target by 2070 under the Paris Agreement

Roles of Communities & Youth

• FPOs (Farmer-Producer Organizations):
  Strengthen collective action for sustainable agriculture

• Self-Help Groups (SHGs):
  Empower rural women with eco-friendly income opportunities

• Youth Movements:
  Drive awareness, local innovation, and green entrepreneurship

Challenges Ahead

• Low awareness of climate risks

• Inadequate financing for green infrastructure

• Limited access to clean technology

• Conflicts between economic gain and environmental goals

The Way Forward

1. Mainstream Climate Goals into Rural Policy

   • Green jobs, sustainable farming, waste-to-energy

2. Invest in Skills and Capacity Building

   • Train rural communities in climate-resilient practices

3. Public-Private Partnerships

   • Scale renewable energy, smart irrigation, and eco-infrastructure

4. Community-Led Adaptation

   • Leverage traditional knowledge and local leadership

Conclusion

“The storms we ignore today will be the floods we cannot escape tomorrow.”

Rural sustainability is not a separate objective—it is the foundation of India’s climate resilience, food security, and social equity. To lead the world in climate action, India must begin from its villages. The convergence of rural development and climate goals will shape a green, just, and sustainable future for all.

Useful Resources

Source	Purpose
Brundtland Commission Report (1987)	Defines sustainable development and sets the global agenda
NAPCC (India)	India’s national framework on climate action
IPCC Reports	Scientific evidence on climate change impacts and solutions
Ministry of Rural Development (MoRD)	Implements key rural sustainability programs like MGNREGA
NITI Aayog Reports	Tracks India's progress on SDGs and climate indicators

Environmental Justice

By – Kalpana Sahoo,

Edited by - Nazmin Saikia

“There is no climate justice without racial justice, queer justice, social justice, and intergenerational justice.”

What Is Environmental Justice?

According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, environmental justice means the fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people—regardless of race, color, national origin, or income—concerning the development, implementation, and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations, and policies.

Environmental Justice in India

To understand environmental justice in India, we must first acknowledge the country’s deep-rooted social disparities and current environmental challenges.

India’s rapid industrialization and technological growth have lifted many out of poverty, but they have also led to the unchecked exploitation of natural resources, pollution, and environmental degradation. The focus on economic growth often comes at the cost of ecological balance.

While the concept of environmental justice originated in the U.S. civil rights movement, its core issues have long existed in India. Struggles by tribal and rural communities to protect their land and water have often remained localized due to limited media attention.

Environmental injustices in India manifest in various forms:

• Destruction of natural ecosystems like forests and water bodies

• Harm to the livelihoods of local and indigenous communities

• Public unrest triggered by ecological degradation

According to recent reports, over 85% of environmental legal cases in India fall under high or medium intensity categories—triggering mass mobilization, protests, or legal intervention. These cases largely revolve around:

• Fossil fuels and climate change

• Water management

• Mining and industrial pollution

• Land acquisition and infrastructure development

Fortunately, India’s proactive judiciary and institutions like the National Green Tribunal (NGT) have played a vital role in ensuring justice in environmental matters. NGT’s expertise has helped resolve complex environmental disputes and has empowered grassroots environmental movements.

Climate Change and Marginalized Communities

Climate change does not affect all people equally. Vulnerable and marginalized communities—such as the rural poor, tribal groups, women, and the elderly—bear the brunt of its consequences. These communities often:

• Live in high-risk areas like coastlines, floodplains, or drought-prone regions

• Depend on climate-sensitive sectors like agriculture, fisheries, and forestry

• Lack access to basic services, healthcare, or emergency infrastructure

Examples of Inequities:

• In the U.S., low-income and racial minority communities live in areas with higher pollution levels, worsening respiratory and heart health.

• In Australia, Indigenous populations in remote areas suffer more from cyclones and bushfires but have limited emergency support.

• In Bangladesh, flood-prone areas are home to poor communities who repeatedly lose homes and livelihoods to climate disasters.

Climate change also creates climate refugees—people forced to migrate due to rising sea levels, droughts, or disasters. Lacking resources, these communities struggle to resettle, deepening cycles of poverty and instability.

In poorer nations:

• Health systems are strained due to heat-related illnesses or disease outbreaks (e.g., malaria, dengue).

• Droughts and erratic rainfall reduce agricultural productivity, leading to hunger and malnutrition.

• Resource scarcity can spark conflict over water, land, and food, especially in fragile economies.

Women, Indigenous people, and other socially marginalized groups are particularly vulnerable due to systemic inequities and limited political representation.

Climate Inequality: Data & Insights (2022)

The Climate Inequality Database (2022) reveals stark disparities in emissions:

• The bottom 50% of Europe emits ~5 tons CO₂/person/year

• In East Asia, it’s ~3 tons; in North America, ~10 tons

• The top 10% emits 6–15x more: 29 tons (Europe), 39 (East Asia), 73 (North America)

Surprisingly, the poorest half of populations in rich countries are close to achieving 2030 emission targets, while the top half continue to exceed their carbon budget. Current carbon policies, like carbon taxes, often affect lower-income groups more harshly than the wealthy.

Climate Inequality in India (2022)

While India is the third-largest emitter globally (after China and the U.S.), its per capita emissions remain low due to its large, low-income population.

Key findings:

• The top 1% in India emit disproportionately more carbon than the bottom 50%.

• Vulnerable regions such as Odisha, Bihar, and Uttar Pradesh face extreme climate impacts—floods, droughts, and food insecurity—while contributing the least to emissions.

• Industrialized states like Gujarat and Maharashtra have higher emission footprints.

• Coastal regions like Kerala and West Bengal face rising sea levels and frequent cyclones.

• India's energy transition efforts—solar, wind, green mobility—are progressing but face challenges due to financial and technological constraints.

Global Solutions for Climate Inequality

1. Climate Finance & Just Transition

   • Wealthy countries must deliver grants (not loans) to fund climate adaptation and renewable energy in developing nations.

   • E.g., UN's $100B/year pledge to the Global South.

2. Loss and Damage Fund

   • Established at COP27 & COP28, this fund compensates poor countries for irreversible climate impacts like rising sea levels.

3. Fair Emission Reductions

   • Rich countries should cut emissions more aggressively, honoring their historical responsibility.

   • Carbon budgets must consider per capita contributions.

4. Support for Renewable Energy in Global South

   • End fossil fuel subsidies and finance clean energy development (e.g., India’s International Solar Alliance).

5. Protection for Indigenous & Vulnerable Communities

   • Indigenous people protect 80% of global biodiversity. Climate justice must uphold their rights and knowledge systems.

Addressing Climate Inequality in India

1. State-Specific Climate Action Plans

   • Example: Odisha’s climate-resilient agriculture & early flood warning systems

2. Targeted Green Investment

   • Promote solar energy in rural areas

   • Invest in public transport and green jobs for informal workers

3. Social Protection & Climate Insurance

   • Strengthen MGNREGA, expand crop insurance, and provide cash support in climate-affected areas

   • Build insurance mechanisms for small farmers and businesses

4. Inclusive Urban Planning

   • Upgrade slums and provide flood and heatwave-resistant infrastructure to low-income groups

5. Empowering Women & Youth

   • Support women-led green enterprises

   • Promote youth-driven climate movements like Fridays for Future India

Key Reports to Know

Source	Key Finding
Oxfam – Climate Equality Report (2023)	The richest 1% emit as much carbon as the poorest 66%.
Climate Inequality Report (2023)	Carbon inequality exists even within countries like India.
India’s Third Biennial Report to UNFCCC	India’s per capita emissions remain among the lowest globally.

Three Big Actions for Climate Justice

Action	Responsibility
Polluters must pay	Wealthy countries & billionaires must cut emissions and finance the Global South
Protect the most vulnerable	Governments must prioritize adaptation and social protection
People-powered solutions	Empower women, youth, and Indigenous communities as climate leaders

Final Thoughts

The climate crisis is inseparable from the crisis of inequality. Environmental justice demands that we confront not just carbon emissions but also the systems of power that determine who benefits from development and who suffers its consequences. As India and the world face a pivotal climate decade, justice must be the foundation of every policy, protest, and plan.

From Rio 1992 to 2025: Reimagining Sustainable Development Through an Indian Lens

By Vikas Arora

As we reflect on World Environment Day 2025 under the banner “Beat Plastic Pollution”, we are reminded that environmental degradation is no longer a distant threat. It is a present crisis. Yet, beyond the numbers and protocols lies a deeper moral inquiry: what kind of relationship should human civilisation have with nature?

This is not a new question. Long before the Rio Earth Summit of 1992 laid the groundwork for modern environmental diplomacy, India’s ancient texts offered a profound ecological vision. The Vedas described the universe as composed of the Pancha Mahabhoota—five gross elements—interconnected in harmony. This wasn’t mere mythology; it was philosophy rooted in sustainability.

India, rooted in the wisdom of its ancient texts, has always nurtured a tradition of ecological consciousness. The Vedas invoke nature not merely as a resource, but as a divine presence—“Do not harm the water and the flora; Earth is my mother, I am her son.” This Vedic worldview lays the foundation of what modern environmentalists now call Ecological Democracy or Harit Swaraj. It resonates powerfully with the idea of “Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam”—the world as one family—reminding us of the interconnectedness of all life on Earth.

Gandhi: The Earliest Environmentalist

Well before the international community convened in Stockholm (1972) or Rio (1992), Mahatma Gandhi had sounded the alarm on unsustainable consumption: 

“The Earth has enough for everyone’s needs, but not for everyone’s greed. 

M.K. Gandhi

” Environmental movements in India like Chipko and Narmada Bachao Andolan found philosophical and strategic strength in Gandhi’s emphasis on simplicity, decentralisation, and harmony with nature.

Rio Earth Summit 1992: A Global Turning Point:  The 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro was a landmark moment that redefined humanity’s relationship with the planet. It produced key international agreements:

• Agenda 21: A blueprint for sustainable development.

• Rio Declaration: 27 guiding principles on environment and development.

• Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

• United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

• Forest Principles: Guidelines for sustainable forest management.

The concept of Sustainable Development—meeting present needs without compromising future generations—entered global policy vocabulary.

From Rio to Paris to 2025: Key Milestones

🌐 1997 – Kyoto Protocol

• Binding emission reduction targets for developed countries under the UNFCCC.

🌍 2002 – Johannesburg Summit (Rio+10)

• Reviewed implementation of Agenda 21.

• Shifted focus toward poverty eradication and water sanitation.

🌏 2012 – Rio+20 Summit

• Produced “The Future We Want” declaration.

• Introduced concept of Green Economy and reinforced Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

🌎 2015 – Paris Agreement

• Landmark treaty under UNFCCC aiming to limit global warming to below 2°C, ideally 1.5°C.

• Emphasized Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs).

2015 – UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development

• Adopted 17 SDGs and 169 targets addressing climate, inequality, health, and justice.

🌍 2021–2025 – Climate Emergency Era

• IPCC Reports warned of irreversible tipping points.

• COP26 (Glasgow) and COP28 (Dubai) tried to accelerate climate finance, phase-down coal, and push for net-zero.

Plastic, Pollution, and Planetary Limits

The 2025 theme, “Beat Plastic Pollution”, is a reminder of how even seemingly “modern” materials have turned hostile. From oceans choked with microplastics to rivers poisoned by industrial effluents, plastic pollution embodies the core crisis of modernity: excess without foresight.

India, with its tradition of reuse, modest consumption, and ecological reverence, must not replicate the mistakes of the West in the name of development.

The Great Divide: Development vs. Sustainability

Rio exposed the longstanding rift between the Global North and South.

Southern/Developing countries, especially in the Southern Hemisphere, argued that environmental constraints could not be imposed on them while they were still struggling with basic development. They demanded equity, technology transfer, and climate finance.

Northen/Developed nations, having already exhausted much of the planet’s carbon budget, called for emission cuts and green transitions—often without acknowledging their historic responsibility.

This “Green vs. Growth” debate continues to haunt every climate negotiation, including COP26 in Glasgow and COP28 in Dubai. The North-South divide remains unresolved.

"Developmentalism" and Geopolitics:

The New York Times' coverage of the summit highlighted how the summit was framed within the context of geopolitical rivalry and conventional "developmentalist" approaches, which often prioritized economic growth over environmental concerns. The coverage also focused on the interactions between political leaders and largely ignored the concerns of non-governmental organizations and environmental groups. 

"Green" vs. "Growth":

The central dilemma was how to reconcile the desire for economic growth in the Southern Hemisphere with the need for environmental protection and sustainable development. This created a tension between the immediate needs of the poor and the long-term goals of the rich, with the South often feeling that the North wanted to keep them in a state of poverty while focusing on environmental concerns. 

The Rio Earth Summit (1992): A Turning Point

• North-South Divide:

The summit brought to the forefront the unequal distribution of wealth and resources between developed and developing countries, often referred to as the North-South divide. 

• Sustainable Development:

The summit's core theme was sustainable development, recognizing that economic growth and environmental protection must be pursued together. 

• "Brown Agenda":

The summit acknowledged the unique environmental challenges faced by urban areas in developing countries, often referred to as the "brown agenda," including pollution, inadequate infrastructure, and poverty. 

• Developing World's Concerns:

Developing countries expressed concerns that the North, having already industrialized and benefited from resource extraction, was now imposing environmental restrictions that would hinder their development. 

• Criticism of the World Bank:

The World Bank has faced criticism regarding its lending practices and the impact of its projects on the environment and local communities.

 

The Rio Summit and Beyond

• "Our Common Future":

The summit built upon the recommendations of the 1987 Brundtland Report, which emphasized the interconnectedness of environment and development. 

• Rio+20:
  The 20th anniversary of the Rio Earth Summit, known as Rio+20, reiterated the commitments made in 1992 and aimed to set new benchmarks for action.

 

India’s Climate Trajectory: From Principles to Practice

India has walked a careful, principled path. While it contributes less than 4% of global CO₂ emissions, it shoulders the burden of being home to over 1.4 billion people vulnerable to climate impacts.

Key national steps include:

• NAPCC with eight National Missions.

• Enhanced INDC targets for 2030, including 40% energy from non-fossil sources.

• India’s Net-Zero Target by 2070.

• National Hydrogen Mission and the 450 GW renewable energy goal.

• Transition from BS-IV to BS-VI emission norms.

• ‘LiFE’ Movement (Lifestyle for Environment): A global Indian initiative promoting sustainable lifestyles.

• At COP27 and the G20, India echoed its civilizational theme: “Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam” — One Earth, One Family, One Future.

The Sundarbans: A Living Laboratory of Climate Change

Nowhere is the climate crisis more visible than in the Sundarbans, the world’s largest mangrove forest and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Rising sea levels, saline water intrusion, and intensified cyclones have jeopardized its unique ecosystem.

Local communities face displacement, livelihood loss, and health hazards. The region's degradation isn’t just a local tragedy—it’s a global warning.

As a biodiversity hotspot, carbon sink, and storm buffer, the Sundarbans are critical to both environmental and human survival. Yet they continue to receive fragmented, underfunded conservation attention.

The Future We Must Choose

The Brundtland Report (1987) declared, “Our Common Future”, but we are now hurtling toward “Our Common Peril.”

Sustainability is not merely an economic or ecological choice—it is a civilizational test. India, with its philosophical grounding, demographic weight, and democratic traditions, is uniquely positioned to lead the global South into a new era of climate justice.

We must advocate for:

• Loss and Damage Funds to compensate vulnerable nations.

• Stronger regional cooperation through platforms like BRICS.

• Localization of SDGs, especially in ecologically sensitive zones.

• Integration of indigenous knowledge systems into climate adaptation.

• Reform of global institutions like the World Bank to prioritize green equity.

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Conclusion: Reclaiming Ecological Swaraj

Gandhi once said, “What we do to the environment is a reflection of what we are doing to ourselves.” As we approach a decisive decade, let us revisit not only Rio’s resolutions but also India’s ancient civilizational wisdom.

Sustainable development cannot be an export from Western capitals; it must rise from native soil, informed by ethics, equity, and ecology.

The age of extractive growth is over. The age of Ecological Swaraj—where the planet’s health is placed at the centre of progress—has begun.

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Suggested Readings for GS Paper 3:

• Brundtland Commission Report (1987)

• India’s NDCs and Climate Action Tracker

• IPCC AR6 Synthesis Report (2023)

• SDG India Index (by NITI Aayog)

• “Loss and Damage in the Sundarbans” – Zero Carbon Analytics

UPSC Related Important Questions:

• Discuss the importance of the Sundarbans delta and the challenges it faces due to climate change. 

• Analyze the impact of rising sea levels and increased cyclone frequency on the Sundarbans ecosystem. 

• Examine the role of mangrove forests in carbon sequestration and climate change mitigation, focusing on the Sundarbans. 

• Evaluate the effectiveness of conservation efforts in the Sundarbans in the face of climate change. 

• Discuss the socio-economic impacts of climate change on the communities living in the Sundarbans. 

• Analyze the significance of the Sundarbans as a UNESCO World Heritage Site and its role in biodiversity conservation. 

• What are the challenges to the sustainability of the Sundarbans and what measures can be taken to address them? 

• How does climate change affect the livelihoods of people in the Sundarbans? 

• What are the key differences between the Sundarbans and other mangrove ecosystems? 

• What is the significance of the Ramsar recognition of the Sundarbans?

• Conflict between developed and developing countries regarding support for mitigation ?

• Do you agree that the occurrence of climate change is due to excessive exploitation of natural resources by the developed countries? 

• Challenges for India in Achieving Net-Zero Emissions by 2070

• Discuss the characteristics of the monsoon climate and explain the factors that influence its behaviour?

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