By Arpita Mishra
Masculinity in India is not merely biological or psychological—it is a socially constructed identity, deeply intertwined with patriarchy, family structure, inheritance, and societal expectations. From childhood, men are conditioned to equate lineage, authority, and control with manhood, often at the expense of their own mental health and the well-being of women around them.
Understanding masculinity in the Indian context is critical to addressing the hidden mental health crisis among men and the systemic violence and inequality it perpetuates.
Identity, Masculinity, and Social Norms
Masculinity is not monolithic—it is shaped by culture, caste, class, and media. Identity theories (Erikson’s stages, Goffman’s self-presentation, or Sen’s capability approach) can see how rigid masculine roles suppress authentic identity.
Identity Conflict: Rural-urban migrants or competitive exam-aspirants face dual pressure—traditional expectations (breadwinner, marriage) vs modern aspirations (freedom, self-expression).
Intersectionality: Masculinity among Dalit, tribal, or queer men differs sharply from upper-caste, urban models—yet mainstream society rarely acknowledges this diversity.
Changing Indexes: India’s World Happiness Report rank (126/143) and Global Gender Gap (129/146) reflect not just women’s struggles, but also men’s hidden vulnerabilities.
Defining Masculinity in India
In India, masculinity is shaped by patrilineal continuity, sibling hierarchy, economic inheritance, and social dominance.
Son Preference and Lineage:
Families prefer sons as heirs, economic providers, and caretakers in old age. If the first child is a girl, families often expect the second to be a son; rare exceptions of only having daughters are less than 0.1%.
Masculinity is thus linked to lineage and social honor, while daughters are often treated as transient family members.
Sibling Hierarchy:
Elder brothers are given authority over sisters. Families rarely encourage elder sisters to assert authority over younger brothers, reinforcing patriarchal norms.
Socially, the combination of elder sister + younger brother is celebrated (the sister as caregiver, the brother as protector) and beneficial for family.
Economic Inheritance and Dependence:
Property passes from father to son, giving men status and control while women remain economically dependent after marriage.
These dynamic drives men to equate financial provision with masculinity, creating stress and pressure to perform economically.
Everyday Expressions of Masculinity:
Control over female relatives or partners is normalized, sometimes escalating to verbal, emotional, or physical violence.
Public displays of dominance, aggression in social spaces, or sexual conquest are markers of masculinity in peer culture.
Emotional vulnerability is suppressed; crying, fear, or distress is often mocked as weakness.
5. Masculinity and Societal Pressure to Provide:
o Because wealth and property remain male-centric, men feel immense pressure to earn, acquire, and secure status, which is socially equated with masculinity.
o Failure to meet these expectations—unemployment, low income, or inability to marry—can lead to frustration, depression, or aggression, both toward self and others.
6. Silencing Vulnerability:
o A man crying is mocked as “not man enough.”
o Boys are told: “Mard ko dard nahi hota” (men don’t feel pain), pushing them toward suppression and emotional isolation.
7. Family Control & Violence:
o Masculinity often manifests as control over women’s choices. A man may impose restrictions on his girlfriend, sister, wife, or mother, expecting obedience.
o Violence—emotional, verbal, or physical—is normalized:
-Girlfriend: Demanding passwords, show rights, need every information, monitoring or resorting to threats.
-Sister: Monitoring friendships or enforcing curfews.
-Mother: Devaluing her opinions in household decisions despite her sacrifices.
-Wife: Domestic violence, marital rape, or financial control as tools of dominance.
Cultural Roots of Masculinity in India: The Home and Inheritance
In India, masculinity is often tied not just to strength or control, but also to the right to remain in one’s parental home and inherit property, while women are expected to leave after marriage. This social structure profoundly affects both men and women:
Men Remain, Women Leave
In most traditional Indian households, a girl leaves her parental home after marriage, moving to her husband’s family home.
Conversely, sons stay in the family home, inherit property, and carry forward the family name. This gives men economic security, social authority, and a sense of continuity—factors that reinforce masculine identity.
Legal vs. Tradition
The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, does not legally require a woman to leave her parental home after marriage; she has rights to maintenance and property.
Yet, tradition dictates that a woman must relocate, which creates a societal imbalance: men remain economically and socially dominant while women often face dependence and mobility restrictions.
In Indian Society, Economic structures, inheritance laws, and marital dependency create a feedback loop—men are conditioned to equate property, earning, and control with masculinity, while women are systemically excluded, reinforcing patriarchal norms.
📌 Example:
In a traditional North Indian village, a family may have three daughters and two sons. Only the sons inherit farmland; the daughters, though educated, remain economically dependent after marriage. The sons, socialized to manage property, often display dominance, control, and aggression—both as a way to assert masculinity and to fulfill societal expectations.
Natural Hormones, Early Decisions and Mental Health Pressures:
Adolescence (13–21 years)
Hormonal Surges: Testosterone peaks, causing mood swings, aggression, and heightened sexual desire.
Mental Pressure: Peer pressure, academic competition, and exposure to sexual content online create identity confusion.
Masculinity Expression: Risk-taking, showing physical strength, early experimentation with alcohol, drugs, or sexual activity.
Young Adults (21–32 years)
Hormonal Stability: Testosterone stabilizes but is influenced by stress, sleep deprivation, and lifestyle.
Consumerism & Family Pressure: social media and glamorized lifestyles create unrealistic expectations about body, wealth, and progeny.
Mental Health: Anxiety, depression, and suppressed emotions are common. Pressure to be a provider and maintain social status often leads to substance use, casual sexual relationships, and dominance behaviors.
Consumerism, Media, and Masculinity
Western consumerism and media amplify hyper-masculinity, materialism, and body image obsession.
Sexualized advertising, pornography, and social media glorify aggression and sexual conquest as proof of manhood.
Peer pressure in college or workplace environments often encourages substance abuse, thrill-seeking, and risk-taking.
Drugs, Rave Parties, Red-Light Areas, and Trafficking
Rave Parties and Drug Use:
Cities like Bangalore, Mumbai, and Pune report thousands of men (18–30 years) arrested annually for possession of ecstasy, LSD, cannabis at rave parties.
Peer pressure and desire to assert masculinity fuel these behaviors.
Red-Light Areas and Sex Tourism:
Men frequent areas like Sonagachi (Kolkata) and Kamathipura (Mumbai) for sexual gratification.
This reflects patriarchal norms linking masculinity to sexual dominance and control.
Women and Girl Trafficking:
Men dominate networks involved in trafficking, exploiting economic power and patriarchal control.
Reports from NCRB and NITI Aayog indicate trafficking is often connected to substance abuse, peer networks, and organized crime.
High-Profile Arrests:
Students and young professionals arrested for illegal rave parties and sexual activities demonstrate how suppressed emotions, peer pressure, and performance-driven masculinity can have legal and mental health consequences.
Rising Suicides Among Young Professionals
Piyush Ashok Kawade (23) – Pune
On July 28, 2025, Piyush Ashok Kawade, a 23-year-old IT engineer at Atlas Copco in Pune's Hinjewadi IT Park, tragically died by suicide. After attending a meeting, he left the room citing chest pain and subsequently jumped from the seventh floor of the office building. A suicide note was found at the scene, where Piyush expressed feelings of failure, stating, "I have failed everywhere in life. Forgive me." He also apologized to his father, saying he would have been a better son and urged him not to waste time on his death.
Abhilasha Bhausaheb Kothimbire (25) – Pune
Earlier, on May 31, 2025, Abhilasha Bhausaheb Kothimbire, a 25-year-old IT professional, died by suicide by jumping from the 21st floor of The Crown Greens Society in Pune's Hinjewadi area. A suicide note was found, stating, "I don't want to live anymore," indicating her despair. Family members reported that she had been under constant work stress and pressure to learn new technologies, which may have contributed to her decision.
Alarming Rise in Student Suicides in Kota
Kota, Rajasthan, known for its coaching centers, has witnessed a significant increase in student suicides. In 2025 alone, 14 student suicides were reported, with 17 in 2024. The Supreme Court of India expressed deep concern over this surge, questioning the Rajasthan government's response and the delay in registering FIRs in these cases. The court emphasized the need for timely legal action and support systems for students.
Supreme Court's Intervention
The Supreme Court has actively intervened in cases of student suicides. In May 2025, the court criticized the Rajasthan government for the delay in registering FIRs in student suicide cases, emphasizing that such delays compromise justice and accountability. The court also questioned the state's response to the alarming number of student suicides in Kota, calling the situation serious.
Pressure from Wives and Family
In some cases, women’s demands for financial security, lifestyle upgrades, or compliance with traditional roles can unintentionally increase a man’s stress.
Social norms also expect men to satisfy both emotional and physical needs of the spouse, while suppressing their own emotional vulnerabilities.
Marital disagreements can amplify feelings of inadequacy, especially if compounded by career stress or societal expectations of masculinity.
Domestic Violence and Aggression
Research and police reports indicate that men under high stress sometimes express frustration through aggression toward their spouse, children, or female family members.
This includes verbal abuse, controlling behavior, or, in extreme cases, domestic violence—an unhealthy manifestation of “masculinity under pressure.”
Real-Life Examples
Mumbai, 2024: A 32-year-old IT professional was reported for domestic abuse after failing to meet his wife’s expectations regarding household finances, highlighting how financial dependency and societal pressure can escalate conflict.
Delhi, 2023: In a high-profile case, a husband attempted suicide due to cumulative pressure from work, in-laws, and demands for a bigger house—police noted stress as the underlying factor.
Underlying Factors
Workplace Stress: Both Piyush and Abhilasha faced immense pressure in their professional lives, which may have contributed to their tragic decisions.
Emotional Distress: The notes left behind by both individuals suggest deep emotional turmoil and a sense of failure.
Lack of Support Systems: The absence of adequate mental health support in high-pressure environments can exacerbate feelings of isolation and despair.
Alternatives: Meditation, Vedic Philosophy, and Identity Awareness
Meditation and Yoga: Regulate hormones, reduce cortisol, and improve emotional stability.
Vedic Philosophy and Bhagavad Gita: Teach that true identity (Atman) transcends gender roles; Sthitaprajna (equanimity) encourages balanced responses to success and failure.
Identity Awareness: Recognizing diversity of masculine experiences—caste, class, region, sexual orientation—can reduce conflict, anxiety, and pressure to perform.
Enhanced Mental Health Support: Institutions and workplaces should provide accessible mental health resources and counseling services.
Awareness Campaigns: Educating individuals about mental health, stress management, and seeking help can reduce stigma and encourage timely intervention.
Policy Reforms: Governments and organizations must implement policies that prioritize mental well-being and ensure the safety of individuals in high-stress environments.
Index Table: Men, Masculinity, and Mental Health
Towards a New Model of Manhood
Normalize Emotional Expression: Schools and universities should integrate mental health curricula for boys, addressing masculinity myths early.
Community Spaces: Like SHGs for women, men’s circles can create safe spaces for sharing vulnerability without stigma.
Policy Interventions: India spends only 1.2% of GDP on health, with a fraction on mental health. Expanding counselling, especially for men in high-stress sectors (agriculture, armed forces, competitive exams), is critical.
Spiritual Anchoring: Meditation, Ayurveda, and Vedic wisdom can be reframed as mental health tools—not just religious practices.
Redefining Masculinity: From domination to compassion, from suppression to balance—society must accept that strength lies in emotional honesty.
Promote education and awareness in schools and colleges about healthy relationships, consent, and emotional intelligence.
Conclusion
Masculinity in India is deeply tied to lineage, property, social dominance, and performance expectations. These structural and cultural pressures contribute to mental health risks, substance abuse, violence, and exploitation. Breaking the silence on men’s struggles is essential not only for men themselves but for the wellbeing of women, families, and society at large.
By combining ancient wisdom, meditation, and modern mental health practices, and by redefining social norms, India can foster a generation of men who are strong yet compassionate, confident yet emotionally aware, and truly free from the destructive pressures of toxic masculinity.
References
Son preference, lineage & “want at least one son”
“New Survey Shows Indians Still Prefer Sons Over Daughters: Here’s What 80% Of The People Say” — NFHS-5 Survey. “Nearly 80% said they wanted at least one son in their lifetime.” Indiatimes
“Changes in India's son preference, ultrasound use and fertility” — Pew Research Center. Describes the decline in explicit son preference across religions, but also that it remains strong in many places. Pew Research Center
Suppressing emotions / emotional expression & mental health among men
Zaiba Kulsum A., & Dr. Anjana Sinha (2022). “Gender Stereotypes, Societal Pressure and Emotional Expression among Men.” International Journal of Indian Psychology. The study found correlations between emotional expressivity and depression/anxiety/stress among Indian men. IJIP
“Restrictive Emotionality in Indian Men: A Hindrance to Help Seeking Behaviour” — International Journal of Indian Psychology. Examines why many Indian men find it difficult to express emotions or seek help, finding factors like societal expectations, fear of negative labeling, etc. IJIP
Gender Gap / Global Gender Gap Rankings
“India drops to 131st spot in WEF Gender Gap index, down from 129 in 2024” — Business Standard, based on the World Economic Forum Global Gender Gap Report 2025. Business Standard
“India ranked 131 of 148 nations on Global Gender Gap Index 2025 with a gender parity score of 64.4%.” The Times of India
Earlier: “India moves up 8 places to 127 in Global Gender Gap Report 2023” — The Hindu / Business Standard etc. The Hindu+2Business Standard+2
Suicide / mental health / suicides skewing male
Delhi NCRB data: “In 2022, of 3,367 suicide cases reported in Delhi, 2,525 were men and 842 were women.” Hindustan Times
Student suicides: “7.6% of all suicides in 2022 were of students: NCRB data.” India Today
Broad suicide statistics: While not always broken down by gender in every source, there are reports of high numbers of male suicide victims (see above and other NCRB data).
Cultural roots, inheritance, legal reforms concerning property & gender
“Duration of exposure to inheritance law in India: Examining the heterogeneous effects on empowerment” — Shreya Biswas, Upasak Das, Prasenjit Sarkhel. Discusses how gender-neutral inheritance reforms (e.g. Hindu Succession Act amendments) affect women’s empowerment and the gradual relaxation of social norms. arXiv
“Entitled to Property: How Breaking the Gender Barrier Improves Child Health in India” — Md Shahadath Hossain & Plamen Nikolov. Effects of inheritance laws giving rights to unmarried women (Hindu Succession Act Amendment) on child health. arXiv
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